La agricultura atraviesa una crisis mundial, la productividad y la sostenibilidad son dos factores que los agricultores están desafiando para producir más alimentos, preservar el medio ambiente y la salud de los seres vivos. Los países desarrollados y subdesarrollados necesitan adoptar nuevas alternativas productivas, que mejoren la calidad de los alimentos, preservando el medio ambiente y los ecosistemas. Actualmente, el abuso y mal uso de los productos químicos ha causado una serie de problemas como contaminación (suelo y agua) y resistencia de las plagas a los ingredientes activos. El cambio climático y otras transformaciones por las que atraviesa la agricultura, generaron hace décadas la aparición de la industria de insumos biológicos, que son productos amigables con el medio ambiente y la salud humana. Estos productos tienen características y modos de acción que ayudan al control de plagas con menos riesgos que el uso de pesticidas. Esta revisión recopila la importancia, el uso y las aplicaciones de productos biológicos basados en hongos benéficos en América Latina, destacando el proyecto "Biocontrol para Sistemas Agrícolas Sustentables" ejecutado en Ecuador, financiado por MFAT Nueva Zelandia, el cual ha demostrado la eficiencia del uso de microorganismos en la agricultura a través de los resultados de las investigaciones llevadas a cabo durante la ejecución de este Proyecto. Además, se mencionan aspectos relacionados con el control de calidad de productos biológicos y las regulaciones para su registro.

Agriculture is going through a global crisis, productivity and sustainability are two factors, which farmers are challenging to produce more food, preserve the environment and the health of living beings. Developed and developing countries need to adopt new productive alternatives, which improve the quality of food, preserving the environment and the ecosystems. Actually, the abuse and misuse of chemical products has caused a series of problems such as contamination (soil and water) and pest resistance to active ingredients. Climate change and other transformations that agriculture is going through, generated decades ago the emergence of the industry of biological inputs, which are friendly products with the environment and human health. These products have characteristics and modes of action that help pest control with fewer risks than the use of pesticides. This review compiles the importance, use and applications of biological products based on beneficial fungi in Latin America, highlighting the project "Biocontrol for Sustainable Farming Systems" executed in Ecuador, funded by MFAT New Zeland, which has shown the efficiency of the use of microorganisms in the agriculture through the research results obtained during the execution of this Project. In addition, aspects related to quality control of bioproducts and regulations for their registration are also mentioned.

Abstract The following article analyzes the situation of the province of Esmeraldas, located in the northeast of Ecuador and populated by afro-descendants and indigenous Chachi people. This province is one of the most affected by the high frequency and intensity of floods that cause innumerable material, economic and human loses. The objective of this research is to acknowledge the situation of the mentioned populations, identify their practices and representations, analyze how conditions of vulnerability related to the risks caused by floods are generated, and pinpoint the guides governmental institutions have used to develop their prevention and adaptation policies about this type of disasters. This study uses a qualitative methodology that is exploratory and descriptive in order to provide an account of the issue, showing that these populations recognize the level of vulnerability and risk in the area, but maintain their way of life because their actions respond to their own socio-cultural and economic constructions. In this sense, the conclusion of this study indicates that the preventative state measures, with relocation projects of the populations, are skewed, segmented, and authoritarian. The lack of communication, respect, and understanding for the forms of interaction of the community can be pinpointed as the reason for the failure of these initiatives.

Resumen El presente artículo analiza la situación de la provincia de Esmeraldas, ubicada al noroeste del Ecuador, y poblada por afrodescendientes e indígenas chachi. Esta provincia es una de las más afectadas por la alta frecuencia e intensidad de inundaciones, las cuales ocasionan innumerables pérdidas materiales, económicas y humanas. El objetivo de este estudio es reconocer la situación de las mencionadas poblaciones, identificar sus prácticas y representaciones, analizar cómo se generan condiciones de vulnerabilidad frente a los riesgos ocasionados por las inundaciones, así como identificar los direccionamientos bajo los cuales las instituciones gubernamentales han desarrollado políticas de prevención y adaptación ante este tipo de desastres. El estudio utiliza una metodología cualitativa de tipo exploratoria y descriptiva para dar cuenta de la problemática experimentada, identificando que estas poblaciones reconocen el nivel de vulnerabilidad y riesgo del área, pero siguen manteniendo su forma de vida porque su accionar responde a construcciones socioculturales y económicas propias. En este sentido, se concluye que las medidas preventivas entregadas por el Estado, con proyectos de reubicación de las poblaciones, son sesgadas, segmentadas y autoritarias. La falta de comunicación, respeto y entendimiento de las formas de interacción de la comunidad son, en gran parte, la razón del fracaso de estas iniciativas.

BACKGROUND Amphimerus spp. is a liver fluke that infects humans and domestic animals. It is highly prevalent in some Ecuadorian communities. Currently, diagnosis is based on the microscopic observation of eggs in faeces, but this has variable sensitivity. More sensitive methods are needed for diagnostic testing. OBJECTIVE The main objective of this work was to develop an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using crude antigens from Amphimerus spp. adult worms to detect anti-Amphimerus IgG in human sera. METHODS Crude somatic antigens were obtained from adult Amphimerus spp. worms. Human sera from 119 patients were tested: 48 from individuals with a confirmed Amphimerus spp. infection, 78 from non-infected Ecuadorians living in the endemic region, 60 from persons living in non-endemic areas (20 Ecuadorians, 20 Europeans, and 20 Africans), and 33 who had other parasitic and non-parasitic infections. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Results were analysed using the receiver-operator characteristic (ROC) curve analysis with an area under curve (AUC) value of 0.967. The accuracy of the ELISA was high. The sensitivity was 85.0% [95% confidence interval (CI): 80.3-89.7%] and the specificity was 71.0% (95% CI: 65.2-76.8%). Some cross reactivity was detected against Paragonimus mexicanus, Fasciola hepatica, Schistosomiasis, Taenia solium, Strongyloides stercoralis, Mansonella spp., and Vampirolepis nana. MAIN CONCLUSIONS We have developed the first ELISA technique that detects anti-Amphimerus IgG in human sera with good sensitivity, repeatability and reproducibility. However, more specific antigens are needed to further enhance performance of this assay. Regardless, this ELISA test could be useful for early diagnosis and prompt treatment of human Amphimerus spp. infections.

ABSTRACT Objectives Prenatal care is a pillar of public health, enabling access to interventions including prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and congenital syphilis. This paper describes social factors related to use of prenatal care in Ecuador. Methods In 2011 and 2012, participant clinical history and interview information was analyzed from a national probability sample of 5 998 women presenting for delivery or miscarriage services in 15 healthcare facilities in Ecuador, to estimate prevalence of HIV, syphilis, and Chagas disease, and prenatal care coverage. Results The study found that 94.1% of women had attended at least one prenatal visit, but that attendance at no less than four visits was 73.1%. Furthermore, lower educational level, greater number of pregnancies, occupation in the agriculture or livestock sector, and membership in ethnic indigenous, Afro-Ecuadorian, or other minority groups were factors associated with lack of use (no prenatal visits) or insufficient use of prenatal care (fewer than four visits or first visit at >20 weeks gestation) in Ecuador. Conclusions These results point to persistence of marked inequalities in access to and use of prenatal health services attributable to socioeconomic factors and to the need to strengthen strategies to address them, to reach the goal of universal prenatal care coverage.

RESUMEN Objetivos La atención prenatal es uno de los pilares de la salud pública y permite el acceso a intervenciones tales como la prevención de la transmisión materno-infantil del VIH y de la sífilis congénita. Este artículo tiene como objetivo describir los factores sociales asociados con la utilización de los servicios de atención prenatal en Ecuador. Métodos Entre 2011 y 2012, se realizó un análisis de la información procedente de las historias clínicas y de la entrevista a las participantes, que integraron una muestra probabilística a nivel nacional de 5 998 mujeres atendidas por parto o aborto en 15 servicios sanitarios en Ecuador con el objetivo de estimar la prevalencia de VIH, sífilis, enfermedad de Chagas y la cobertura de atención prenatal. Resultados El estudio mostró que 94,1% de las mujeres había acudido a algún control prenatal, pero la asistencia al menos a cuatro controles fue 73,1%. Se encontró que el menor nivel educativo, el mayor número de embarazos, la ocupación en el sector agrícola o ganadero y la pertenencia a los grupos étnicos indígena, afroecuatoriano u otros minoritarios fueron factores asociados con la falta de uso (ningún control prenatal) o al uso inadecuado de la atención prenatal (menos de cuatro controles o primer control después de las 20 semanas de gestación) en Ecuador. Conclusiones Estos resultados apuntan a la persistencia de desigualdades marcadas en el acceso y en la utilización de servicios de atención prenatal atribuibles a factores socioeconómicos y a la necesidad de fortalecer las estrategias para su abordaje para alcanzar la meta de la cobertura universal de atención prenatal.

The aim of this study was to determine the genetic diversity of Giardia duodenalis present in a human population living in a northern Ecuadorian rain forest. All Giardia positive samples (based on an ELISA assay) were analysed using a semi-nested polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism assay that targets the glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) gene; those amplified were subsequently genotyped using NlaIV and RsaI enzymes. The gdh gene was successfully amplified in 74 of 154 ELISA positive samples; 69 of the 74 samples were subsequently genotyped. Of these 69 samples, 42 (61%) were classified as assemblage B (26 as BIII and 16 as BIV), 22 (32%) as assemblage A (3 as AI and 19 as AII) and five (7%) as mixed AII and BIII types. In this study site we observe similar diversity in genotypes to other regions in Latin America, though in contrast to some previous studies, we found similar levels of diarrheal symptoms in those individuals infected with assemblage B compared with those infected with assemblage A.